CHINA FASHION BUSINESS

▼The following discussion and summary from the Coldy Fashion Circle address industry-related issues. These insights are the product of collective wisdom and do not represent individual opinions. The aim is to benefit industry professionals.

Why Discuss “Chinese” Dressing Temperament?

In this book, my definition of “temperament” refers to a personal charisma that encompasses one’s overall appearance and demeanor, as well as their speech and conduct. Through these outward manifestations, we perceive a person’s inner essence. However, in my view, “having temperament” does not equate to being conventionally “beautiful” or “well-proportioned.” In daily life, we have all encountered individuals who exude strong temperament without fitting the stereotypical standards of beauty.

Here, the “national temperament” we discuss refers to the distinct personality, cultural, and physical characteristics that differentiate one ethnic group from others.

Why focus on the Chinese temperament? I believe this is a topic we, as Chinese, should explore both publicly and privately.

Publicly, China has recently emphasized “reviving traditional Chinese culture,” with plans to “establish a basic framework for inheriting and developing outstanding traditional Chinese culture by 2025… solidify the foundation of national cultural soft power, and significantly enhance the global influence of Chinese culture” (cited from Xinhua News Agency (2017), “General Office of the CPC Central Committee and State Council Issue Guidelines on Implementing Projects to Inherit and Develop Traditional Chinese Culture”).

The current popularity of “Chinese-style” aesthetics and “domestic trendy brands” (Guochao) reflects a growing passion for Chinese culture that extends beyond mere discussion—people increasingly seek to embody a “Chinese” lifestyle in their daily lives, including clothing with Chinese cultural characteristics. A prime example is Hanfu enthusiasts. While Hanfu enthusiasts have existed for over two decades, it was rare to see people wearing Hanfu in daily life years ago. Today, however, Hanfu-clad individuals are common in subways, malls, and scenic spots, with large-scale cultural events organized specifically for Hanfu enthusiasts.

Privately, as more Chinese travel abroad or engage in international business, there is heightened attention to cultivating a personal sartorial identity. For instance, while celebrities once exclusively wore international luxury brands, many now deliberately choose Chinese designer labels for public appearances. Government officials, professors, business professionals, and other representatives of China in cross-cultural exchanges often ponder: “What should I wear to highlight my Chinese identity?” Yet, they also resist limiting themselves to overtly traditional attire like the Zhongshan suit or cheongsam. Clearly, the public desires more diversified Chinese-style clothing—now commonly termed “New Chinese-style” in the industry.

Therefore, when discussing what attire suits the Chinese temperament, we must first understand what defines the Chinese temperament.

What is the Chinese Temperament?

Among existing publications, the earliest formal discussion of “Chinese temperament” came from an American. The book Chinese Characteristics was written by Arthur Henderson Smith (1845–1932), a missionary who lived in China for nearly 50 years. He was among the first Westerners to systematically introduce Chinese society and culture to the West, and he maintained a friendly stance toward the Chinese. Notably, he urged the U.S. government to allocate half of the “Boxer Indemnity” to fund Chinese students studying in America. Chinese Characteristics remains a rare work that objectively examines Chinese society and people—neither blindly praising nor baselessly criticizing—and is still in print today.

Though Smith observed Chinese society nearly a century ago, many of his assessments remain relevant. In his portrayal, the Chinese are hardworking, resilient, filial, and kind, balancing flexibility with stubbornness. At the same time, he noted tendencies toward “saving face,” indirect communication, and a lack of integrity as areas for improvement.

Another seminal work on Chinese temperament is The Spirit of the Chinese People by Ku Hung-ming. Like Smith, Ku was deeply versed in both Eastern and Western cultures. He studied in Europe during his youth, mastering English, French, and German, and long advocated for Chinese perspectives through Western media. Though both books were written over a century ago, their insights remain timeless.

Drawing from Eastern and Western cultural and philosophical theories, I summarize the Chinese national temperament through the following traits, which influence our aesthetic sensibilities and sartorial consciousness:

1、A Fundamental Difference: Chinese “Harmony” vs. Western “Science”

Every nation has its own great history, and humanity shares universal values. However, objectively, the Chinese and Western minds differ fundamentally. If we were to label these distinct mentalities with keywords that sharply differentiate them, “harmony” best describes the Chinese, while “science” suits the Western approach.

“Harmony” refers to maintaining peaceful social relations, which includes:

• Avoiding conflict;
• Building good relationships with others;
• Investing time and effort to nurture personal connections;
• Establishing business relationships through personal ties.

The Chinese love for “harmony” manifests in myriad ways, giving rise to two familiar concepts: guanxi (relationships) and mianzi (face).

“Guanxi” (Relationships)

Scholar Yang defines it as “interpersonal relationships established based on mutual interests and benefits” (cited from Yang, M.H. (1994). Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China. Ithaca: Cornell University Press). Lee and other scholars describe it as “personal relationships built on the principle of reciprocity” (cited from Lee, D. J., Pae, J. H., and Wong, Y. H. (2001). ‘A Model of Close Business Relationships in China’, European Journal of Marketing 35 (1/2): 51–59). Others view guanxi as both “social capital” (cited from Bian, Y.J. (2001). ‘Guanxi Capital and Social Eating in Chinese Cities: Theoretical Models and Empirical Analysis’. In Lin, N., Cook, K., and Burt, R.S. (eds.), Social Capital: Theory and Research, 275–295. New York: Aldine de Gruyter) and “social resources” (cited from Luo, Y. (1997). ‘Guanxi and Performance of Foreign-invested Enterprises in China: An Empirical Inquiry’. Management International Review, 37(1): 51–70). Guanxi permeates every corner of our society. Most Chinese have experienced situations where their first thought when facing difficulties is to “seek guanxi”—finding connections for children’s schooling, securing hospital appointments through acquaintances, or hoping to know a judge when involved in legal disputes.

“Mianzi” (Face)

Mianzi is omnipresent in daily life and work. At a dinner table, declining a drink invitation is seen as “disrespecting someone’s face.” In the office, openly contradicting a superior’s opinion is “humiliating their face.” Even among strangers, asking for a favor requires “giving face.” The desire to preserve one’s own mianzi while considering others’ is a vital cultural phenomenon in Chinese society.

Readers might wonder: Don’t Westerners value “relationships” and “face”? They do, but to a vastly different degree. For the Chinese, maintaining guanxi and mianzi often outweighs truth. For example, if a leader makes a statement that subordinates privately disagree with or deem incorrect, they will likely remain silent. This silence stems from two motivations: prioritizing harmonious relationships with superiors and avoiding damage to the leader’s mianzi. In Western societies, however, most people prioritize truth over relational harmony, openly voicing disagreements rather than suppressing criticism to preserve relationships. This reflects their cultural DNA rooted in “science,” favoring rational thinking, logical debate, and truth-seeking over relational harmony.

These cultural traits also influence dressing behaviors. The Chinese emphasis on harmony, guanxi, and mianzi fosters a collective mindset, whereas Western cultures prioritize individualism.

In clothing choices, Chinese individuals often ask, “What will others think of me?” When purchasing clothes, they frequently seek others’ opinions—”Does this look good?” A single negative comment can significantly impact their decision. Many Chinese prefer blending into the collective, avoiding standing out through attire, reflecting a conservative tendency. Westerners, conversely, prioritize personal expression, often striving for uniqueness in their outfits.

Mianzi-driven comparisons manifest in clothing choices, particularly among youth and older generations. For instance, college roommates might feel pressured to own branded sneakers matching or surpassing their peers’. The internet-exposed phenomenon of “fake socialites” flaunting luxury items also exemplifies this pursuit of mianzi.

2、 Subtle Expression

Chinese culture, like much of East Asia, belongs to “high-context culture,” where communication is indirect and implicit, requiring listeners to infer meanings. In contrast, “low-context cultures” (e.g., Western cultures) favor direct and explicit communication. This explains why foreigners often struggle to interpret Chinese business partners’ intentions.

During negotiations, Chinese individuals rarely reject proposals outright, instead using phrases like “Let’s discuss this later” or “We’ll consider it.” While Chinese counterparts recognize these as polite refusals, foreigners unfamiliar with the culture may naively await follow-up meetings.

Aesthetic expressions similarly embrace subtlety and understatement.

Chinese aesthetician Li Zehou identifies “subtlety” as a cornerstone of traditional Chinese art, reflecting Confucian values of benevolence and sincerity. He notes, “The pursuit lies in the nuance between resemblance and non-resemblance… Resemblance (to reality) prevents complete abstraction or free association.” Traditional Chinese clothing—whether layered robes or straight-cut gowns—embodies this concept. Fabrics drape gently, concealing body contours, unlike Western suits that emphasize three-dimensional tailoring to highlight physique.

3、Avoiding Uncertainty—Conservatism

Culturally, the Chinese lean toward avoiding uncertainty. While humans generally prefer stability, this tendency is amplified in Chinese aesthetics, leading to conservative dressing. Most stick to familiar styles, avoiding experimental colors or silhouettes that might draw unwanted attention. Safety lies in tradition.

This conservatism partly explains older generations’ disapproval of youth trends like tattoos, ripped jeans, or cross-dressing. Rooted in Confucian ethics, clothing has historically symbolized social morality. Notably, this is not unique to China—Western history similarly equated attire with moral character until social movements (e.g., Britain’s “Swinging London”) dismantled such norms.

“Swinging London,” a 1960s youth-led rebellion against tradition, birthed icons like The Beatles and The Rolling Stones. In fashion, designer Mary Quant revolutionized hemlines with the miniskirt—a bold celebration of youth and female liberation. Punk pioneer Vivienne Westwood, influenced by this movement, opened her iconic “SEX” boutique in the 1970s, blending rock and punk aesthetics. While understanding mainstream social norms, we should avoid judging character solely through attire.

Why Did Robes Originate in China, While Suits Emerged in Europe?

To better understand how cultural roots shaped distinct sartorial philosophies for Chinese and Westerners, I use robes and suits as examples. This comparison offers tangible insights into the essence of Chinese dressing temperament, which holds relevance as China explores its path toward “Chinese-style modernization.”

Why did robes originate in China and suits in Europe? This seemingly trivial question reveals profound cultural differences. Structurally, suits are three-dimensional, tailored with stiff fabrics to accentuate the body, while robes are flat, made of soft fabrics to conceal the physique. These aesthetic differences reflect deep-rooted disparities in Eastern and Western cultural mindsets.

First, an objective factor: suits originated in Britain (rich in wool) and robes in China (renowned for silk). Wool was historically termed “hard fabric,” while silk was “soft fabric,” leading to divergent cutting and sewing techniques. However, this is not the sole reason.

1、Differing Perceptions of the Body

Eastern and Western cultures hold contrasting views of the body. Western aesthetics, influenced by ancient Greek civilization, celebrate the body as beautiful and worthy of display. Hence, Western art features nude sculptures and paintings. Traditional Chinese art, however, never depicts nudity—reflecting a belief that the body should be concealed. Tailored suits highlight physical form, while loose robes obscure it beneath fabric.

2、Divergent Aesthetic Philosophies

As discussed earlier, Chinese temperament leans toward subtlety and restraint, shaped by agrarian societies rooted in land and familial bonds. Western cultures, shaped by maritime traditions, embrace boldness and openness. This contrast persists today: Western diplomats’ wives might wear low-cut, sleeveless gowns at formal events, while their Chinese counterparts opt for modest, dignified attire.

3、Differences in Scientific Development

The rise of mathematics and geometry transformed Western tailoring from intuitive craftsmanship to scientific precision. Before modern tailoring techniques (still used today), Western garments were loosely fitted, crafted by replicating existing patterns or manually measuring body parts. Notably, China had standardized rulers as early as the Shang Dynasty, yet Westerners lacked precise tools until mathematical formulas enabled accurate calculations of body curves and dimensions.

Western tailoring techniques were introduced to China in the mid-19th century. Prior to this, Chinese robes employed simple “cross-shaped” cutting: folding fabric, cutting a central hole for the head, sewing sides, and adding sleeves. This method required no complex formulas or darts (techniques for shaping bust-waist-hip contours). Modern fitted qipaos, for instance, integrate Western tailoring into traditional designs.

4、Environmental Consciousness

Beyond science, ancient Chinese reverence for nature—the concept of “harmony between heaven and humanity” (天人合一)—explains the historical prevalence of robes. Traditional cross-shaped cutting minimized fabric waste, utilizing even scraps for details like sleeve linings (cited from Shao Xinyan (2013), “Hanfu Cross-Shaped Structure and Modern Fashion Design Research,” Art Design Research, January, 40–44). In contrast, Western cutting remains fabric-intensive, generating 15%–30% waste per garment—a major sustainability issue in today’s textile industry.

5、Traditional Gender Norms

Until the mid-20th century, strict gender separation (“separation of men and women,” 男女授受不亲) prevailed in China. Historically, only men worked as tailors, partly due to perceptions of tailoring as physically demanding. In such contexts, flat cutting helped tailors avoid measuring female bodies directly.

Additionally, physiological differences between Chinese and Western body types (e.g., slimmer vs. broader builds, varying skin tones) explain sizing challenges when Western brands enter China. Adjustments to necklines, bust measurements, armholes, and color palettes are often necessary.

Summary of Chinese Sartorial Temperament:

• Subtlety over boldness in overall style.
• Concealment over exposure in body attitudes.
• Collectivism over individualism: Dressing aligns with social harmony rather than pure self-expression, though individuality persists (discussed later).
• Harmony with nature: Reviving traditional eco-conscious practices in modern fashion.

This chapter does not advocate for all Chinese to wear “traditional” attire in an era of sartorial diversity. Rather, it offers inspiration for those seeking to embody Chinese cultural identity in daily life.

This article is excerpted from The Philosophy of Dressing by Leng Yun.

PS: The translation is done by AI.